Summary
The supply and circularity of strategic metals are major challenges for Europe. Essential to many industries, they nevertheless come almost exclusively from outside Europe (China, Russia, etc.). The circularization and therefore recycling of waste materials represents a promising secondary source, albeit still marginal. This could strengthen Europe's strategic autonomy and promote a more circular economy.
This study analyzes the role that recycling can play in sustainable supply, approaching the subject not in a generic way but more concretely by specific metal/waste pairs. The analysis is structured in three stages: an understanding of waste deposits, a study of recycling technologies, and then an assessment of the obstacles and levers to the deployment of recycling for some fifteen metal/waste pairs.
For some metals, such as silver in electronic component waste, recycling is already well underway in Europe. For others, such as tantalum in capacitors, opportunities are emerging. This work underlines the importance for the EU to define clear recycling priorities according to the strategic interest of each metal.
Keywords: Gisements de déchets, recyclage, métaux stratégiques, économie circulaire, argent (Ag) et silicium métal (Si) dans les panneaux photovoltaïques, cobalt (Co) et lithium (Li) dans les batteries au lithium, néodyme (Nd) dans les aimants NdFeB, cobalt (Co) et samarium (Sm) dans les aimants SmCo, antimoine (Sb) dans les plastiques bromés, tantale (Ta) dans les condensateurs, argent (Ag) et étain (Sn) dans les composants électroniques, gallium (Ga) dans les circuits intégrés, indium (In) dans les écrans, vanadium (V) dans les alliages HLSA, magnésium (Mg) dans les alliages d’aluminium, Waste deposits, recycling, strategic metals, circular economy, silver (Ag) and silicon metal (Si) in photovoltaic panels, cobalt (Co) and lithium (Li) in lithium batteries, neodymium (Nd) in NdFeB magnets, cobalt (Co) and samarium (Sm) in SmCo magnets, antimony (Sb) in brominated plastics, tantalum (Ta) in capacitors, silver (Ag) and tin (Sn) in electronic components, gallium (Ga) in integrated circuits
Synthesis
Disclaimer: The content of this publication is based on the state of
knowledge and the regulatory framework in force at the time of
publication of the documents.
Study context
The digital, ecological, and energy transitions present Europe with a dual challenge. On one hand, it appears necessary to initiate or continue these technological, economic, and behavioural revolutions. These involve evolving production and consumption patterns, and rely on the use of more sustainable technologies. On the other hand, it is essential to secure the resources on which the deployment of these technologies depends.
These technologies depend on the use of a wide range of raw materials, particularly metals, for which global demand is rapidly increasing, and whose supply chains are highly concentrated in certain countries.
The European Union is increasingly aware of its dependence on the supply of these raw materials and of the risks that potential geopolitical or trade tensions may represent for the continuity of exchanges. Like other countries and regions worldwide, the EU developed strategies to secure its future supply of raw materials.
This situation strengthens the focus on alternative sources of supply, particularly raw materials from recycling within Europe. Given both the strategic and environmental challenges associated with Europe's supply of strategic metals, it is relevant to assess the current and future contribution that their recycling could provide.
Objectives and methodology
The study aims to conduct a review of strategic metals in existing and future waste deposits, which could contribute to the supply of European industries. It also examines the technologies that need to be used or developed to achieve this goal, in order to propose various action plans to enhance the recycling of certain strategic metals in Europe.
The study is structured into three main phases :
- An analysis of available literature data on current and future waste deposits. This phase highlights metal/waste pairs for which the implementation or improvement of recycling could be particularly relevant due to significant potential deposits.
- A detailed overview of various technological recycling pathways for metals, based on an analysis of fifteen selected metal/waste pairs.
- The identification of the most suitable pairs (among those selected) for developing an industrial-scale production of strategic metals from recycled waste in France and Europe. The barriers and levers for the industrialisation of strategic metal recycling in France and Europe are synthesized, and various action plans are proposed.
Because the challenges associated with metal recycling are inherently linked to the waste containing these metals, the study has been conducted using a metal/waste pair approach. To illustrate the nature of the analyses carried out and the results obtained in the study, the document includes results on one of these metal/waste pairs (lithium in lithium-ion batteries).
Presentation of key findings
Phase 1 - Strategic metal in waste deposits
The deployment of strategic metal recycling must address the needs of European industry. In this regard, it is essential to study the current and future context of various strategic metals in terms of their use and supply. Thus, for 26 strategic metals within the scope of this study, the present and future challenges were examined concerning:
- Their current and anticipated uses (current applications in key sectors such as renewable energy, projected evolution of demand);
- Their supply (the European Union's level of dependence, risks associated with the governance of supplier countries, anticipation of supply risks, etc.);
- Recycling and its share in overall supply.
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Focus on lithium
Currently, a significant portion of lithium applications are considered strategic, particularly lithium-ion batteries used for the electrification of lifestyles, such as in the mobility sector.
Europe is characterised by its high dependence on imports (81% at the extraction stage, 100% at the refining stage on average between 2016 and 2020), with moderate supply risks linked to the governance of supplier countries.
A significant increase in demand is expected in the coming years, primarily driven by the dynamic battery sector. Primary supply is expected to meet short-term demand, but supply deficits could emerge as early as 2030.
Finally, despite the existence of current and emerging technologies, lithium recycling remains particularly low.
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The analysis and comparison of these different dynamics make it possible to prioritise the metals for which recycling could represent a potential strategic supply source. Metal recycling is directly linked to the waste that contains it: the study therefore examines in depth around fourty metal/waste pairs associated with sectors of activity and products whose growth or consumption is significant (associated volumes) or strategic (for example, because the metal is present at an interesting level of purity). Pairs associated with dissipative use, low waste deposits, or well-established recycling with a concentrated waste stream are excluded. For the selected pairs, the study highlights the use of the metal in the product, the potential waste deposit, both current and future, and the current end-of-life conditions (sector performance, existence of regulatory objectives, etc.).
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Focus on lithium in lithium-ion batteries
Usage: In metallic form for the anodes of portable batteries and in the form of lithium salts (electrolyte) or alloy for the cathode in different technologies.
Average life span: dependent on the lifespan of the equipment they are associated with, ranging between 5 and 10 years for EEE. For electric vehicles, the average battery lifespan is estimated at 10 years.
Anticipated use in Europe (Source: European Commission, 2023):
- Regarding electric vehicles, lithium demand is expected to increase from 5 kt in 2020 to 40-54 kt in 2030 and approximately 58-82 kt in 2050.
- Energy storage currently represents a small share of demand but is projected to grow from 130 t in 2020 to 2.5-3.9 kt in 2030, and 12.1-20.1 kt in 2050, depending on the scenarios analyzed.
- For portable batteries, the demand in lithium is expected to increase in much smaller proportions, from 0.14 t in 2020 to 0.17 t in 2030.
Current waste deposits: Estimated at approximately 1,500 t in Europe in 2020, with no data available for France (PROSUM, 2017).
Future waste deposits: Unknown for France and the EU but expected to increase (+++).
Current end-of-life management in Europe: Lithium remains minimally or not at all recovered during the treatment of end-of-life batteries. Efforts have been made to recover lithium from used batteries and accumulators, primarily in the form of black mass. However, less than 1% of lithium (across all applications) was recovered in 2021 (SCRREEN, 2023). The European regulation adopted in July 2023 on batteries regulates the recycling of these products based on the technologies and materials they contain.
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Several key findings emerge from this study:
- The low availability of data on metal in waste deposits, particularly regarding future waste deposits;
- Conversely, the existence of numerous reference studies on future metal needs in various applications;
The future potential waste deposits remain mostly unknown, emphasizing the need for further studies to create a mapping of metal in waste deposits, a key first step in deploying the recycling of strategic metals.
Phase 2 - Strategic metal recycling technologies: current state and outlook
Based on the first phase of the study, the following metal/waste pairs were selected:
- Silver and silicon metal in photovoltaic panels
- Cobalt et lithium in lithium batteries
- Neodymium in NdFeB magnets
- Cobalt et samarium in SmCo magnets
- Antimony in brominated plastics
- Tantalum in capacitors
- Silver and tin in electronic components
- Gallium in integrated circuits
- Indium in screens
- Vanadium in HLSA alloys
- Magnesium in aluminium alloys (ELV, packaging, etc.)
For each of these pairs, the objective is to understand which recycling chains exist or are under development. To achieve this, the study identifies the key stages and technologies associated with each recycling process. This approach helps analyze the main barriers and opportunities for deploying the recycling of the metal/waste pair.
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Focus on lithium in lithium-ion batteries
Analysis of recycling steps and technologies:
Key players : Over the past decade, China and South Korea established themselves as global leaders in lithium-ion battery recycling, holding nearly 70% of the market share.
European sector: In Europe, particularly in connection with the establishment of extended producer responsibility (EPR) schemes for batteries and accumulators, various stakeholders involved in the management of end-of-life batteries (recyclers, eco-organizations, etc.) are already present across the region. However, the development of a European recycling industry faces economic obstacles:
- Emerging European projects face competition from well-established historical players already entrenched in the market;
- Aggressive commercial practices by incumbent players, characterised as economic dumping (i.e. keeping prices artificially low on a market), threaten the economic viability of European players and therefore the development of projects;
- The growth of closed-loop recycling in Europe also depends on the development of market outlets, which remains a blocking issue for certain players.
Recycling processes: Lithium extraction processes require various levels of pre-treatment and material separation. There are three main cathode material extraction pathways:
- Pyrometallurgical processing is not relevant in this case, as its performance in lithium extraction is highly limited;
- Hydrometallurgical processing, which requires dismantling and sorting between the main fractions, followed by crushing and separation (magnetic separation, flotation, etc.). The resulting blackmass contains cell materials, including the cathode.
- Cathode regeneration, an approach still in the development phase, aims for the direct recycling of cathode materials by restoring their electrochemical properties. This method requires more advanced pre-treatment steps compared to metallurgical processes.
Despite the gradual technological deployment, the current processing capacities for blackmass do not allow for the production of recycled raw materials of sufficient quality to be directly incorporated into battery manufacturing.
Main obstacles to the deployment of recycling: To date, the absence of refining capacities for raw materials at the quality levels required for battery manufacturing hinders the development of a complete European recycling chain for lithium in lithium-ion batteries, as is the absence of projects, in sufficient volumes, to produce active cathode materials and their precursors for cell production. Additionally, there are no sufficiently large-scale projects to produce cathode active materials and their precursors for cell production. The competition posed by historical non-European players threatens the economic viability of projects under development on the continent..
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Several key takeways emerge from this work:
- Available technologies are often specific to a metal/waste pair but may be duplicated and adapted for others;
- A heterogeneity is observed in the development and deployment stages of recycling technologies for the same pair or across different sectors, highlighting the importance of continuing technological monitoring;
- Several parallel technological pathways can be applied to the same pair. However, it is crucial to consider the recycling chain as a whole. The technological components are interdependent throughout the chain, making it essential to have a comprehensive view of a recycling sector to account for the implications of each technology (e.g., differences in the quality of inputs and outputs);
- Some data is unavailable, particularly concerning the environmental and health impacts of technologies and the costs associated with technological components;
- Depending on the metal/waste pair, the main obstacles may be linked to different stages. These challenges manifest as regulatory, technical, organizational, or economic issues (see Figure 1).
Figure 1: Cross-analysis of the main types of barriers according to the stages of waste recycling (non exhaustive list) (RECORD, 2025)
Phase 3 - Opportunities for recycling strategic metals in Europe
The potential for recycling deployment is then investigated for the different selected pairs. This potential is characterised according to four key aspects: strategic interest, economic interest, technical feasibility, and organisational feasibility.
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Focus on lithium in lithium-ion batteries
- Strategic interest: very high
- Economic interest: medium
- Technical feasibility: moderate
- Organisational feasibility: moderate
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As shown in Figure 2, among the analysed pairs, those with the highest potential for recycling deployment are:
- Lithium and cobalt in lithium-ion batteries;
- Silicon and silver in PV panels;
- Neodymium (and other rare earths) in NdFeB magnets;
- Silver contained in printed circuit boards.
Figure 2: Cross-analysis of metal/waste pairs based on the interest and feasibility of recycling implementation (RECORD, 2025)
The study then outlines recommendations aimed at facilitating the deployment of strategic metal recycling. Whether they are cross-cutting or specific to each pair, they fall into one of the following five categories:
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Focus on lithium in lithium-ion batteries
Organisational and structuring pathway:
Develop the full range of required expertise – both from a technical perspective and in terms of volumetric processing capacity – from end-of-life waste collection to the manufacturing of new batteries.
- Timeline: Medium-term
- Stakeholders: Recyclers, producers, research
- Maturity level: Medium
To contribute to the economic viability of the lithium-ion battery recycling chain in Europe, several regulatory and normative pathways are being considered:
--- Secure the retention of inputs at each stage within Europe
- Timeline: Medium-term
- Stakeholders: Public authorities
- Maturity level: High
--- Limit unfair competition that may exist between European players and their competitors
- Timeline: Medium-term
- Stakeholders: Public authorities
- Maturity level: High
--- Promote the development of demand for batteries stemming from a European processing sector
- Timeline: Medium-term
- Stakeholders: Industry, public authorities, consumers
- Maturity level: Medium
The heterogeneity of products and the technological advancements in the battery sector also call for reflection on the flexibility and technical and logistical transferability of the recycling chains being established.
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Conclusions
The recycling of strategic metals remains underdeveloped at the European level from end-of-life products. This situation is explained by several factors, which vary depending on the metals and the waste containing them: the absence of identified economic interest, the dispersion of metals in complex products, or even insufficient waste deposits to justify targeted recovery, etc. It is following this metal/waste pair approach that the present study was conducted.
The role of recycling in current and future supply chains relies on considering several challenges associated with the different steps necessary for metal circularity:
- The necessity of ensuring recycling outlets, which involves taking into account the current and future needs of industries for the incorporation of recycled raw materials;
- Identifying the "best" end-use for each metal: prioritising recycling for the same application (or at least, maintaining the same level of purity) or redirecting it to other applications (e.g., open-loop recycling, downcycling, etc.). The goal is to find the best compromise between the economic and environmental efficiency of recycling and the needs of user sectors;
- Seeking the least complex recycling loops to ensure better quality monitoring of materials;
- Choosing whether to target a specific metal or a mix of several metals (alloys) in recycling processes (balancing technological and material efficiency);
- Recognising the importance of each step contributing to circularity, from collection to incorporation, in order to optimize the quantities of recycled metals sourced from waste deposits.
Major challenges emerge: the need for improved knowledge, communication between stakeholders, and the structuring of recycling sectors at the national and especially European levels, as well as the protection of a 100% local value chain against global markets. These challenges resonate with recent developments such as the Critical Raw Materials Act (which, for instance, includes a section dedicated to permanent magnets) and ongoing efforts at both the French (circularity plan for critical raw materials, launch of OFREMI following the Varin report, etc.) and European levels.
